Impact of climate change on women’s health: Focus on temperate regions

Perinatal Health and Pregnancy: Increased Vulnerability

Maternal complications and heightened infectious risks during pregnancy

For pregnant women, episodes of extreme heat are associated with a significant increase in the risk of preterm birth and obstetric complications. Other pregnancy-related conditions, such as gestational diabetes, also become more frequent during periods of intense heat, as shown in a systematic review published in BMC.

In addition, climate change promotes the geographical spread of vector-borne diseases such as dengue, malaria, or Zika, which can have serious consequences for both pregnant women and fetuses. Pregnant women may be more exposed to mosquito bites, possibly due to a higher body temperature. While these diseases were initially confined to tropical regions, they now pose a growing threat in Europe: according to a study published in The Lancet Planetary Health, the time between the establishment of the vector and local outbreaks has considerably shortened, meaning the risk of epidemics could increase fivefold by 2060 in Europe¹Farooq, Z., et al. (2023). Impact of Climate and Aedes albopictus Establishment on Dengue and Chikungunya Outbreaks in Europe: A Time-to-Event Analysis. The Lancet Planetary Health, 9(5), e374–e383..

Impacts measurable from birth

Pregnant women and infants are particularly vulnerable to heat stress. A study conducted in Gambia found that exposure to an average temperature of 30 °C during the last trimester of pregnancy and the infant’s first year was associated with significantly lower height and weight at one year of age, compared to exposure to 25 °C²Moore, S. E., Fulford, A. J., Darboe, M. K., Jobarteh, M. L., Jarjou, L. M., & Prentice, A. M. (2012). A Randomized Trial to Investigate the Effects of Prenatal and Infant Nutritional Supplementation on Infant Immune Development in Rural Gambia: The ENID Trial (Early Nutrition and Immune Development). BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 12, 107. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2393-12-107. Several biological mechanisms have been proposed to explain this observation, with distinct effects before and after birth³Bonell, A., et al. (2024). Effect of Heat Stress in the First 1000 Days of Life on Fetal and Infant Growth: A Secondary Analysis of the ENID Randomised Controlled Trial. The Lancet Planetary Health, 8(10), e734–e743. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(24)00208-0:

• For the fetus: the main hypothesis is the activation of an inflammatory response in the mother, disrupting fetal development.
• For the infant: several mechanisms are being explored:
  • Reduced food intake to limit metabolic heat production,
  • Activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in response to heat stress,
  • Alterations of the gut microbiome, increasing diarrheal risk,
  • Reduced digestive absorption linked to immune system activation.

Although this study was conducted in a tropical context, its findings raise questions about the consequences of increasingly frequent heatwaves in temperate climates. According to a recent Nature study⁴Grant, L., Vanderkelen, I., Gudmundsson, L., et al. (2025). Global Emergence of Unprecedented Lifetime Exposure to Climate Extremes. Nature, 641, 374–379. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08907-1, if global warming follows a +3.5 °C trajectory, 92 % of children born in 2020 will be exposed to extreme heatwaves during their lifetime.

Other findings suggest that climate impacts may differ by sex: reduced respiratory performance has been observed in female newborns exposed to high in-utero temperatures⁵Inserm. Extreme Temperatures During Pregnancy: A Potential Impact on Female Infants’ Lung Development. https://presse.inserm.fr/temperatures-extremes-durant-la-grossesse-un-impact-possible-sur-le-developpement-pulmonaire-des-nourrissons-filles/66694/. While these results need to be confirmed through long-term longitudinal analysis, they already suggest that environmental effects may vary by sex, highlighting the importance of integrating a gender-based approach into studies on the health impacts of climate change.

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Working Life: Between Physiological Vulnerabilities and Social Inequalities

Specific physiological sensitivity

In adult women, climate effects impact specific biological mechanisms such as hormonal function. Several studies suggest that exposure to high temperatures may affect menstrual cycle regularity and disrupt neurohormonal balance⁶Arneth, B. (2025). Endocrine Parameters and Climate Change. Endocrines, 6(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/endocrines6010005.

At the other end of the hormonal spectrum, menopause also appears sensitive to the effects of climate change. A systematic review highlighted an increase in vasomotor symptoms in menopausal women (hot flashes, night sweats) under high temperatures. Moreover, Mediterranean climates have been associated with an earlier onset of menopause. Early menopause itself is linked to higher risks of cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis. Given the large number of women affected and the associated health consequences, even a slight climate-related increase in incidence could have a considerable impact on women’s health worldwide.

Certain high-prevalence conditions among women, such as migraines (affecting around 20% of women vs. 10% of men), also seem sensitive to climate variations. For each 5 °C increase in temperature, the risk of experiencing migraines rises by 7.5%⁷Mukamal, K., Wellenius, G., Suh, H., & Mittleman, M. (2009). Weather and Air Pollution as Triggers of Severe Headaches. Neurology, 72, 922–927. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000344152.56020.94.

Widening socio-economic inequalities

Beyond biological dimensions, climate change acts as a catalyst for social inequalities and violence. Extreme weather events (heatwaves, droughts, floods) often cause income loss and force individuals into prolonged confinement at home. This combination of economic stress and close quarters fosters tension, increasing the risk of domestic violence. A study conducted in Madrid found a 40% increase in femicide risk in the days following a heatwave⁸Sanz-Barbero, B., Linares, C., Vives-Cases, C., González, J. L., López-Ossorio, J. J., & Díaz, J. (2018). Heat Waves and the Risk of Intimate Partner Violence..

Mental health is another critical concern. The prevalence of eco-anxiety — chronic stress in response to the prospect of a future degraded by environmental crises — is higher among women, particularly younger women. This phenomenon, still poorly characterized, raises the issue of more targeted psychological support.

Aging: Heat as a Driver of Excess Mortality Among Elderly Women

Heatwaves particularly affect elderly women, whose mortality risk is higher than that of men of the same age. In Europe, during summer 2022, heat-related deaths were 56% higher among women over 80 compared to their male counterparts⁹Ballester, J., Quijal-Zamorano, M., Méndez Turrubiates, R. F., et al. (2023). Heat-Related Mortality in Europe During Summer 2022. Nature Medicine, 29, 1857–1866. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-023-02419-z. A study in the Netherlands confirmed this excess mortality, even when accounting for the overrepresentation of women in these age groups¹⁰Folkerts, M. A., Bröde, P., Botzen, W. J. W., Martinius, M. L., Gerrett, N., Harmsen, C. N., & Daanen, H. A. M. (2022). Sex Differences in Temperature-Related All-Cause Mortality in the Netherlands. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 95(1), 249–258. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-021-01721-y.

Several factors have been proposed to explain this increased vulnerability:

• More frequent social isolation (outliving their spouse),
• Lower heat dissipation capacity, linked to a thicker layer of subcutaneous fat limiting evaporative cooling, and a less reactive sympathetic nervous system,
• Greater domestic exposure to heat,
• Increased cardiovascular strain after menopause, linked to declining estradiol levels. This hormone promotes heat dissipation through vasodilation; its decline alters vascular responses to thermal stress, raising blood pressure risks.

While gender differences are already underrepresented in research and medicine, integrating them is even more critical in a context of environmental change, which will disproportionately affect men and women. Women’s specific needs — pregnancy, hormonal health, mental health, aging — call for differentiated public health approaches. Although several studies suggest climate change may affect men’s and women’s health differently, the link between climate and women’s health remains largely underexplored. It deserves further study to better guide prevention, adaptation, and healthcare strategies.

Some grassroots initiatives are beginning to shift perspectives. A striking example is the “Swiss grandmothers,” a collective of elderly women who filed a lawsuit against the Swiss state for climate inaction, highlighting their specific vulnerability to extreme heat. After several judicial setbacks, their case was recognized by the European Court of Human Rights, marking a major step forward in acknowledging women’s disproportionate climate burden.

At Alcimed, we believe the future of health lies in cross-disciplinary approaches that combine health, climate, and gender issues. Understanding these interactions means anticipating risks more effectively, guiding public prevention policies, and building fairer and more impactful strategies. Want to act at the intersection of climate and women’s health? Our dedicated health team can help you explore these paths, leveraging our expertise in investigation and our knowledge of both women’s health and environmental challenges. Don’t hesitate to contact our team!

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About the authors, 

Margot, Consultant in Alcimed’s Healthcare team in France
Pauline, Project Manager in Alcimed’s Healthcare team in France